Biology.

1. Heart cancer - is an extremely rare form of cancer that is divided into primary tumors of the heart and secondary tumors of the heart.

Symptoms

· Chest pain or pressure

· Cough, which may be productive of a pink, frothy sputum

· Fatigue

· Fever

· Irregular heart rhythm (arrhythmia)

· Shortness of breath, which may be worsened by lying flat

· Swelling in the feet and ankles

· Unexpected weight gain or loss

· Weakness

· Widening and thickening of the fingertips

Causes

The cause is unknown.

Treatment

Chemotherapy; to attack cancer cells and manage symptoms

· Dietary counseling; to help people with cancer maintain their strength and nutritional status

· Palliative care; to improve the overall quality of life for families and patients with serious diseases

· Participation in a clinical trial that is testing promising new therapies and treatments for heart cancer

· Physical therapy; to help strengthen the body, increase alertness, reduce fatigue, and improve functional ability during and after cancer treatment

· Radiation therapy; to attack cancer cells and manage symptoms

· Surgery

2. Hepatitis is a medical condition defined by the inflammation of the liver and characterized by the presence ofinflammatory cells in the tissue of the organ

Hepatitis A.

Symptoms of Hepatitis A

· A short, mild, flu-like illness;

· nausea, vomiting and diarrhoea;

· loss of appetite;

· weight loss;

· jaundice (yellow skin and whites of eyes, darker yellow urine and pale faeces);

· itchy skin;

· abdominal pain.

Hepatitis A Causes

· The hepatitis A virus is found in the stools (feces) of people with hepatitis A. It is transmitted when a person puts something in his or her mouth that has been contaminated with the feces of an affected person. This is referred to as fecal-oral transmission

· contacts of people infected with HAV

· The virus can also be spread by eating raw or undercooked shellfish collected from water that has been contaminated by sewage.

· Users of illegal drugs (injected or non-injected)

Treatment for hepatitis A

The doctor will advise avoiding alcohol and fatty foods as these can be hard for the liver to process and may exacerbate the inflammation.

Patients should get plenty of rest and eat a nutritious diet.

They should also ensure they do not spread HAV by washing their hands after using the toilet and before preparing food.

Patients with more severe symptoms may be monitored in hospital for a short period.

Hepatitis B.

Symptoms of hepatitis B

· A short, mild, flu-like illness;

· nausea, vomiting and diarrhoea;

· loss of appetite;

· weight loss;

· jaundice (yellow skin and whites of eyes, darker yellow urine and pale faeces);

· itchy skin.

Hepatitis B Causes

The hepatitis B virus is known as a blood-borne virus because it is transmitted from one person to another via blood or fluids contaminated with blood

Direct contract with blood

The virus may be transmitted when these fluids come in contact with broken skin or a mucous membrane

People who inject drugs with shared needle

People who receive transfusions of blood or blood products

Treatment for hepatitis B

In the majority of patients with active HBV, symptoms will not be severe and treatment will not be required. The patient will be monitored and after a few months the patient’s immune system should fight off the virus, giving the patient natural immunity.

Hepatitis C.

Symptoms of hepatitis C

Nausea

Vomiting

Diarrhea

Loss of appetite

Fatigue

Pain over the liver (on the right side of the abdomen, just under the rib cage)

Jaundice - A condition in which the skin and the whites of the eyes turn yellow

Dark-colored urine

Stoolsbecome pale in color (grayish or clay colored)

Causes

You cannot get hepatitis C by living with, being near, or touching someone with the disease. You can get the disease by sharing a razor, nail clippers, or other such items with an infected person

Through sexual intercourse with an infected person: Having multiple sex partners is a risk factor.

Treatment for hepatitis C

To determine the extent to which the liver has been affected by hepatitis C, other tests may be carried out. These include liver function tests, which measure substances (specific proteins and enzymes) in the patient’s blood, showing how effectively the liver is working. A liver biopsy may also be carried out. A fine hollow needle is passed through the skin into the liver and a small sample is taken. The sample is then examined under a microscope to gauge the amount of liver damage (inflammation, scarring and cirrhosis).

Biology.

1. Acute kidney failure - Acute (sudden) kidney failure is the sudden loss of the ability of the kidneys to remove waste and concentrate urine without losing electrolytes.

Causes

• Acute tubular necrosis

• Autoimmune kidney disease

• Decreased blood flow due to very low blood pressure

• Disorders that cause clotting within the kidney's blood vessels

• Infections that directly injure the kidney, such as:

• Pregnancy complications

• Urinary tract obstruction

Treatment

Once the cause is found, the goal of treatment is to restore kidney function and prevent fluid and waste from building up in the body while the kidneys heal. Usually, you have to stay overnight in the hospital for treatment.

The amount of liquid you eat or drink will be limited to the amount of urine you can produce. you may and may not eat to reduce the buildup of toxins normally handled by the kidneys.

You may need antibiotics.

Calcium or glucose/insulin will be given through a vein to help avoid dangerous increases in blood potassium levels.

2. Renal cell carcinoma - Renal cell carcinoma is a type of kidney cancer that starts in the lining of very small tubes (tubules) in the kidney.

Causes

Renal cell carcinoma is the most common type of kidney cancer in adults. It occurs most often in men ages 50 - 70.

The exact cause is unknown.

Treatment

Surgery to remove of all or part of the kidney (nephrectomy) is recommended.

Hormone treatments may reduce the growth of the tumor in some cases.

Chemotherapy is generally not effective for treating renal cell carcinoma.

Other chemotherapy drugs have been used, but patients generally do not live long once the disease has spread outside the kidney.

Radiation therapy usually does not work for renal cell carcinoma so it is not often used.

3. Kidney stones- A kidney stone is a solid mass made up of tiny crystals. One or more stones can be in the kidney or ureter at the same time

Causes

Kidney stones can form when urine contains too much of certain substances. These substances can create small crystals that become stones.

The biggest risk factor for kidney stones is dehydration.

Kidney stones may not produce symptoms until they begin to move down the tubes (ureters) through which urine empties into the bladder. When this happens, the stones can block the flow of urine out of the kidneys. This causes swelling of the kidney or kidneys, causing pain.

There are different types of kidney stones. The exact cause depends on the type of stone.

Treatment

Treatment varies depending on the type of stone and how severe the symptoms are. People with severe symptoms might need to be hospitalized.

When the stone passes, the urine should be strained and the stone saved and tested to determine the type.

Drink at least 6 - 8 glasses of water per day to produce a large amount of urine. Some people might need to get fluids through a vein (intravenous).

may need to take narcotic pain killers or nonsteroidal anti-inflammatory drugs .

Depending on the type of stone, your doctor may prescribe medicine to decrease stone formation or help break down and remove the material that is causing the stone.

Surgery is usually needed if:

• The stone is blocking urine flow and causing an infection or kidney damage

• The stone is too large to pass on its own The stone is growing

4. Glomerulonephritis- Glomerulonephritis is a type of kidney disease in which the part of your kidneys that helps filter waste and fluids from the blood is damaged.

Causes

Glomerulonephritis may be caused by specific problems with the body's immune system.

Often, the precise cause of glomerulonephritis is unknown.

Damage to the glomeruli causes blood and protein to be lost in the urine.

In about a quarter of people with chronic glomerulonephritis there is no history of kidney disease and the disorder first appears as chronic renal failure.

Treatment

Treatment varies depending on the cause of the disorder, and the type and severity of symptoms. High blood pressure may be difficult to control, and it is generally the most important aspect of treatment.

• Blood pressure medications are often needed to control high blood pressure.

• Persons with this condition should be closely watched for signs that they are developing kidney failure. Dialysis or a kidney transplant may eventually be necessary.

5. Diabetes insipidus – nephrogenic- Nephrogenic diabetes insipidus is a disorder in which a defect in the small tubes (tubules) in the kidneys causes a person to pass a large amount of urine. The tubules allow water to be removed from the body or reabsorbed.

Causes

Nephrogenic diabetes insipidus occurs when the kidney tubules do not respond to a chemical in the body called antidiuretic hormone (ADH), also called vasopressin.

As a result of the defect, the kidneys release an excessive amount of water into the urine, producing a large quantity of very dilute urine. This makes you produce large amounts of urine.

Treatment

If the condition is due to a certain medication, stopping the medicine may improve symptoms. Never stop taking any medication without first talking to your doctor.

A medicine called hydrochlorothiazide may improve symptoms, it can actually reduce urine output for people with nephrogenic diabetes insipidus.

6. Distal renal tubular acidosis- Distal renal tubular acidosis is a disease that occurs when the kidneys don't remove acid properly into the urine, leaving the blood too acidic (called acidosis).

Causes

Your kidneys normally regulate your body's pH by removing acids from the blood and discarding them into the urine.

Distal renal tubular acidosis (Type I RTA) is caused by a defect in the kidney tubes that causes acid to build up in the bloodstream.

Treatment

The goal is to restore the normal pH and electrolyte balance. This will indirectly correct bone disorders and reduce the risk of calcium buildup in the kidneys (nephrocalcinosis) and kidney stones.

Alkaline medications such as potassium citrate and sodium bicarbonate correct the acidic condition of the body. Sodium bicarbonate may correct the loss of potassium and calcium.

Vitamin D and calcium supplements are usually not given because there may be calcium deposits in the kidneys, even after bicarbonate therapy.

7. Proximal renal tubular acidosis- Proximal renal tubular acidosis is a condition that occurs when the kidneys don't properly remove acids in the urine, leaving the blood too acidic.

Causes

Your kidneys help regulate your body's acid-base balance (pH). Acidic substances in the body are buffered (counteracted) by alkaline substances, primarily bicarbonate.

The kidneys contain more than a million filtering units, called nephrons. Bicarbonate is reabsorbed into the blood in the initial (proximal) part of the tubule of each nephron. It occurs when bicarbonate is not properly reabsorbed by the proximal tubules, leaving the body in an acidic state (called acidosis).

Treatment

The goal is to restore the normal pH (acid-base level) and electrolyte balance to the body.

Some adults may need no treatment. All children need alkaline medication to prevent acid-induced bone disease, such as rickets, and to allow normal growth. The underlying cause should be corrected if it can be found.

Alkaline medications include sodium bicarbonate and potassium citrate. They correct the acidic condition of the body and correct low blood potassium levels.

Vitamin D and calcium supplements may be needed to help reduce skeletal deformities resulting from osteomalacia or rickets.

Natural Resources

GEYSER

A geyser is a spring characterized by intermittent discharge of water ejected turbulently and accompanied by a vapour phase (steam).

The formation of geysers is due to particular hydrogeological conditions, which exist in only a few places on Earth, so they are a fairly rare phenomenon. Generally all geyser field sites are located near active volcanic areas, and the geyser effect is due to the proximity of magma. Generally, surface water works its way down to an average depth of around 2,000 metres (6,600 ft) where it contacts hot rocks. The resultant boiling of the pressurized water results in the geyser effect of hot water and steam spraying out of the geyser's surface vent.

Jet-like eruptions, often referred to as geysers, have been observed on several of the moons of the outer solar system. Due to the low ambient pressures, these eruptions consist of vapor without liquid; they are made more easily visible by particles of dust and ice carried aloft by the gas.

tugas tik.

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